影响与适应:从比较的角度看外国留学生

[美] P·G·阿特巴赫

影响与适应:从比较的角度看外国留学生

[美] P·G·阿特巴赫

详细信息

作者简介:
[美] P·G·阿特巴赫：阿特巴赫教授专长于比较教育与高等教育领域的研究, 发表了许多论文，出版40多本专著, 包括:《学术超级商场(Academic Supermar-kets)》(1968)、《比较高等教育(Comparative Higher Education)》(1973)、《美国的学生政治(Student Politics in America)》(1974)、《大学改革: 70年代的比较透析(University Reform; Comparative Perspectives for the Seventies)》 (1974)、《大学改革比较(Com-parative University Reform)》(1981)、《第三世界的高等教育(Higher Education in the Third World》(1982). 《比较教育(Comparative Education)》(1982)、《第三世界的教科书:政策、内容与背景(Text-books in the Third World: Policy，Content and Context)》(1988)、2卷本的《国际高等教育百科全书(International Higher Education; An Encyclopedia)》(1991)

*本文系作者于1991年2月应本刊专约而作。题目的原文为:Impact and Adjustment, Foreign Students in Com-parabive Perspective。——编者
①关于当前的统计情况，见Zikopoulos, M. (Ed.), Open Doors, 1988-89; Report on International Stu-dent Exckange(New York, Institute of International Education, 1989)3也见: Jarousse, J.P., Smith, A. & Woesler, C., Les etudiants etrangersq comparison internationale des flux et des politiques, 1960-1980(Paris; European lnstitute of Education, 1982);也见: Barber, E. G, (Ed, ), Foreign Student Flows; Their Signif icance for American Higher Education(New York :lnstitute of lnternational Education, 1985).
②这些问题的详尽阐述，见Altbach, P. G, , The Knowledge.Context; Comparative Perspectives on the Distribution of K nowledge(Albany, N.Y, ; State University of New York Press, 1987).
③本文所用的“外国留学生(foreignstudent>"--词是指在其祖国外学习的中学后学生(postsecondary student), 而不论其是否攻读学位。“外国留学生”与英国常用的“海外学生(overseasstudent)"是同义词。
④本文参照的大多数研究结果，列于有关外国留学生的三个出版物目录中: Altbach, P.G., Kelly, D. & Lulat, Y, G.M., Research on Foreign Students and International Study: An Overview and Bibliography Re search on Foreign Students and International Study; An Overview and Bibliography(New York; Praeger, 1985), Altbach, P.G. & Jing Wang, Foreign Students and International Study: Bibliography and Analysis, 1984-1988(Washington, D.C University Press of America, 1989) and Lulat, Y.G.M., Altbach, P.G. & Kelly, D, H., Governmental and "Institutional Policies on Foreign Students; Analysis, Evaluation and Bibliograply(Buffalo, N.Y.: Comparative Education Center, SUNY -Buffal0, 1986).
⑤对外国留学生方面的社会科学研究文献所作的一个最佳的概览，见Barber, E.G., Altbach, P.G. & Myers, R.G.(Eds.), Bridges to Knowledgex Foreign Students in Comparative Perspective(ChicagOx Unirersity of Chicago Press, 1984).
①全国外国留学生事务协会出版的一份每月通讯, 不仅刊登外国留学生领域方面的新闻, 而且不时地总结研究结果。在美国国际开发署的资助下，全国外国留学生事务协会几年来发起了许多研究。例如, 见Jenkins, H.M. & Associates, Educating Students from Other Nations(San Fr ancisco; Jossey-Bass, 1983).
②80年代期间，在几个美国基金会的资助下, 国际教育学会发起了几项对外国留学生各个不同方面的有价值的研究.国际教育学会促进开辟了对外国留学的经济分析。见Dresch, S. P., The Economics of Foreign Students (New York; Institute of International Education, 1987).
③见Williams, P. (Ed.), The Overseas Student Question: Studies for a Policy(London; Heinemann for the Overseas Student Trust, 1981)，这是英国关于外国留学生的重要研究的一例。
④见Briggs, A. & Burn, B, Study Abroad: A European and an American Perspective(Paris, Euro-pean Institute of Education, 1985).该书是“国外学习的组织与影响”丛书的第一本。
⑤见Klineberg, O. & Hull, W.F., IV., At a Foreign University: An International Study of Ada ptation and Coping(New York; Praeger, 1979)与Hull, W.F., 1V., Foreign Students in the United States of Amer-ica; Coping Be havior Within the Educati onal Envir onment(New York: Praeger, 1978).
⑥Smith, A., Higher Educatlon Cooperation 1975-1985: Creating a Basis for Growth in an Adverse Economic Climate, " European Journal of Education, 20(No.2-3, 1985); 267-292。也见Opper, S., “Students; Nailed to the Bench or Studying Abroad", European Journal of Education, 22(No.1, 1987): 27-38.
⑦Statistical Yearbook, 1989(Paris; Unesco, 1989)，pp.3→408 to 3-414.
①Open Doors, p.9(摘自联合国教科文组织的统计数字)。
②见本刊第20页注④。
①见Agarwal, V.B. & Winkler, D. R., Foreign Demand for UnIted States Higher Education: A Study of Developing Countries of the Eastern Hemisphere"，Economic Developnient and Cultural! Change 33(April, 1985); 623-644与Agarwal, V.B. & Winkler, D.R., Migration of Foreign Students to the United States"，Journal of Higher Education 56 (September/October, 1985); 509-522.
②东欧政治与经济上的剧变很可能会引起(至少在中短期上)在这一地区学习的第三世界学生的人数急剧下降。应该记住的是，捷克斯洛伐克与苏联这样的国家传统上就是重要的东道国。
③实际上没有研究文献分析第三世界地区内部的学生流动和探讨在工业化国家学习之变化的緣由。
④Altbach, P.G. & Lulat, Y.G.M., "International Students in Comparative Perspective, Toward a来稿上的原文为"economic book", 疑为"economic look"之误。现以后者译出。--译者Political Economy of International Study", in Research on Foreign Students and International Study, op.clto, p.11.
⑤Dresch, s. P., The Economics of Foreign Students (New York: Institute of International Educa"tion, 1987).
⑥Solmon, L.C. & Young, B. J., The Foreign Student Factor; Impact on American Higher Education (New York, Institute of International Education, 1987).
①关于这一课题的少有的研究有: Zikopoulos, M. & Barber, E. G, ，Choosing Schools from Afar; The Selection of Colleges and Universities in the United States by Foreign Students (New York: Institute of International Education, 1986).
②Cummings, w. K., Going Overseas for Higher Education; The Asian Experience*，Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984); 241-257.还可见"Exodus West", Asiaweek 11(March 1, 1985). 21-30.
①Maliyamkono, T. L. (Ed.), Policy Developmenls in Overseas Training (Dar es Salaam: Eastern African University Research Project, 1980).
②对中国政策变化情况的一项吸引人的探讨，见Hayhoe, R., “A Comparative An alysis of Chinese-Western Academic Exchange"，Comparative Education 20(No.1, 1984); 39-56.
③Rajendran, M, "Malaysia's Policy on Foreign Students", Daigaku Ronshu No.15(1986); 103-110.
①见Hayhoe, R, China' s Universities and the Open Door (Armonk, N.Y.:M.S.Sharpe, 1989), 该书富有见地地概览了历史上与当代的问题。
②Shive, G, , "Chinese Universities After the Crackdown", CIES NewsIetter (September-October, 1989); 6~7.
③Chandler, A., Obligation or Opportunity. Foreign Student Policy in Six Major Receiving Countries(New york, Institute of International Education, 1989).
④见Williams, P.(Ed.).The Overseas Student Questi on sStudiesfor a Policy(London; Heinemann, 1981)与Williams, P.(Ed.), A Policy for Overseas Students (London :Overseas Students Trust, 1982).Bristow, R. & Thronton.J., Overseas Students and Government Policy, 1962-1979 (London; Overseas Students Trust, 1979), 他们对英国的情况作了历史的概述。
⑤Government of Australia, Committee of Review of Private Overseas Student Policy, Mutual Advan-iage(Canberra; Australian Covernment Publishing Service, 1984) and Fraser, S.E., "Overseas Students in Australia; G overnment Policies and Institutional Support，Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984);279-299.
⑥Canadian Bureau for International Education, The Right Mix :Report of the Commission on Foreign Student Policy (Ottawa; Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1981).
⑦关于系统阐述政策的困难的透析，请参见Goodwin, c. D. & Nacht, M, Absence of Decisions Foreign Students in American Colleges and Universities: A Report on Policy Formation and the Lack There of(New York; Institute of International Education, 1983).也诸见Barber, E.G. (Ed.), A Survey of Policy Changes; Foreign Students in Public Institution of Higher Education(New York :Institute of International Education, 1983).
①Chandler, A., Foreign Students and Government Policy: Britain, France and Germany(Washington, D.C.. American Council on Education, 1985).
②对近来欧洲关于外国留学的思考情况的概览，见“Practice, Politics and Function of Foreign Study in Higher Education", Eluropean J ournal of Education, 22(N0.1, 1987); 5-114.
③关于政府-机构问题的概述, 见College Entrance Examination Board, University, Government and the For.aign Graduate Student(Princeton, New Jersey: CEEB, 1979).
④Weiler, H., "Political Dilemmas of Foreign Study", Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984);168-179.还见Coombs, P., The Fourth Dimension of Foreign Policy: Education and Cultural Affairs (New York; Harper and Row, 1964).
⑤关于历史的透析，见Raymond, E.A., Foreign Students: The Soviet Education W eapon(Stanford, California; Hoover Institution Press, 1973).从不同的角度看问题的, 见Stanis, V.F., University of Friendship(Moscow; Progress Publishers, 1980).
⑥Open Doors, 1988-1989, P.35.
⑦有关从派送国角度看外国留学的经济情况的研究文选，见Willams, G., Kenyon, M. & Williams, L.(Eds, ), Readings in Overseas Student Policy (London; Overseas Students Trust, 1987); Chishti, S, "Economic Costs and Benefits of Educating Foreign Students in the United States", Research in Higher Education 21(No., 4, 1984); 397--4143 Mace, J., "Overseas Student Fee Policy; Some Economic Considerations", High-er Education Review 19(Summer, 1987); 37-545 Williams, P, Britain's Full-Cost Policy for Overseas Stu-dents", Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984) 258-278.
①澳大利亚和加拿大(程度较小)仿效英国的做法，对外国留学生收取不同的学费, 但这对学生注册人数的影响没有英国那样大。见Heffich, W., Foreign Student Costss A Report on the Costs of Educating Foreign Students in Canadian Universities (Ottawa; Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1977).
②这种情况可能由于东欧近来的政治变化发生了急剧的变化。例如，匈牙利就扩充了以外国留学生为对象、用英语进行教学的学术计划，而且在对修学这些计划的学生收取学费。
③当马萨诸塞州试图向外国留学生收取较高的学费时，它受到广泛的批评，合法的行为受到威胁, 有整别的学费也就从来没有付诸实践过。
④反映该时期研究文献的一项经典性研究是，Adams, W.(Ed, ), The Brain Drain (New York: Macmillan, 1968)。还见Bhagwati, J.N. & Partington, M.(Eds.), Taxing tne Brain Drain (Amsterdam; North Holand, 1976)。从一种不同的角度所作的研究，见Bayer, A.R, , The American Brain Gain; The Inflow for Education and Work (Washington, D.C.x American Council on Education, 1968).
①Hekmati, M., “Non-Returning Foreign Students; Why Do They Not Return Home?" ^{Dritte Welt} 2(1973): 25-43.
②Howland, H. E., Brain Drain--, As It Affects the Philippines (W ashington, D.C.. Foreign Service Institute, U.S. Department of State, 1967).
③例如，美国愈来愈改变了根据国籍限定移民数额的移民规定与甚至依据家庭关系移民的原则, 转向基于美国经济的需要和移民带给美国经济的特定技能的移民准则。
④这些问题的探讨，见Altbach, P.G.et al., Scientific Development and Higher Education: The Case of Newly Industrialicing Nations(New York: Praeger, 1989).
⑤Klineberg, O, & Hull, F., IV, At A Forign University, PP.80-82.
①对这些问题的多方面的有趣探讨，可见Althen, G. (Ed.), Students fronz the Arab World and Iran(W ashington, D.C. National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1978).
②少有的儿项实证研究之一依据回国者的反应，探索了他们对海外经历的态度，详细情况可见Goodwin, C, D. & Nacht, M., Fondness and Frustration: The Impact of American Higher Edrcation With S pecial Reference to the Case of Braril(New York, Institute of International Education，1984).
③见Lysgaard, S., "Adjustment to a Foreign Society : Norwegian Fulbright Grantees Visiting the United States", International Social Science Bulletin 7 (1955); 45-51 and Gullahorn, J.T. & Gullaborn, J.E., "An Extension of the U-curve Hypothesis", Journal of Social Issues 19(1963); 33-47.
④Klincberg, O, & Hull, F., At a Foreign University, op.cit.
⑤Goodwin, C. & Nacht, M, Fondness and Frustration.
①关于外国女学生的研究，见Goldsmith, J. & Shawcross, V. It Ain't Ha1f Serist, M1i;7: Iv'omen as Oversea; Student; in the U. K. (London; World University Service and the UK Council for Overseas Students Affiairs, 1985) and Rowe, L. & Sjoberg，S.，Intr nationa! IW'onen Student; : Perspectives for the 80s (W ashington, D.C.: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1981).
②Goldsmitl, J. & Shawcross, V., op.cit.
③Namavar, M.F., “Sex-Role Orientation of International Fenale Graduate Students and Its Relation ship With Depression and Anxiety"，Unpublished Ph D Dissertation, Indiana University, 1984.
④对这一问题的恐佳探讨之一, 见Zwingmana, C.A., Glunn, A. A. & Gunn, D.G., Uprooting and Health; Psycho-Social Probleins of Student; Froni.Abrcad (Geneva, Switzerland: Division of Mental Health, World Health Organization，1983).
⑤如见Leong，F.T.J., Coitnselinq Internationa! Students: Relevant Resonrces in High Interest.Areas(Ann Arbor, Michigan: ERIC Clearing House on Counseling and Personnel Services, University of Michigan984) Petersen，P.(Ed.), Handiook of Cross-Cultural Couinseling and Tieraipy(Westport, Conn.: G reen-wood，1985) and Pyle; R.K. (Ed.)，Cuiding the Development of Forpign Students (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986).
⑥Mickle，K. & Chan, R.，Tie Cross Cultural Adaptation of Hong K ong Chinese Students at Canas dian Univervities (Ottawl: Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1986).
⑦关于外国留学生服务，尤其是有关美国的外国留学生服务方面的研究文献很广泛。如见Lee, M., Abd -Ella, M. & Burkg, L.，Needs of Foreign Strdents from Developing Nations at U.S. Colleges and iUiniversitie(Washington, D.C.: National Associaticn for Foreign Student Affairs, 1981).
⑧对“外国留学生基础设施”较长篇幅的探讨，见Altbach, P.G.，"The New Internationalism: Foreign.Stu-dents and Scholars", Studies in Higher Education 14(No.2, 1980): 125-136.
⑨关于当前美国和日市教育计划的详细分析，见Chambers, G.S, & Cummings, W.K., Profiting From Ed-ueaation; Japan-United States International Ventures in the 1980s (New York: Institute of Internationa Education, 1990).
①例如，见Hood, M, A.G. & Shieffer, K.(Eds.), Professional Integration:A Guide f or Students from the Developing W orld(W ashington, D.C. iNational Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1983).还见Paige' R, (Ed.), Theoretical Foundations in Cross -cultural Orientation Training(Washington, D.C.: Uaiversity Press of America, 1985).
②Goodwin, C, D, & Nacht, M., Decline and Renewal CausBs and Cures of Decay Among P oreign Trained Intellectup!s and Professionals in the Third World(New York : Institute of International Education’1986) and Canadian Bureau for International Education, Returning Home; A Program f or Persons Assisting International Students with the Reentry Process(Ottawa; CBIE, 1984).对这方面研究文献的概览，见Orr, J.D, ,.Jr., "The Foreign Schol ar Returned Home; A Review qf Selected Reseata", Unpublished Ed.D. Thesis, Columbia University, 1971.
③Baron, M., The Relevance of U. S.Gradnate Progroms to Foreign Students from Developing Coun-tries (Washington, D.C.; . National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1979).还见Dunnett, S, C., Managemnent Skills Training for Foreign Engineering Students, An Assessment of Need and Availability(Washington, D.C. National Association for F oreign Student Affairs, 1982) and Moore, R.J., Bridges :Ca~nadian Universitv Curricula ana Students from the Developing W orld (Ottawa: Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1977).
④研究文献中很少探讨的是对种族歧视的体验，而来自第三世界的许多外国留学生在旅居期间都有这种体验。对外国留学生态度的研究经常提到这个问题，但在研究文献中没有得到足够的注意。
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出版历程

摘要

注释:

1) *本文系作者于1991年2月应本刊专约而作。题目的原文为:Impact and Adjustment, Foreign Students in Com-parabive Perspective。——编者

2) ①关于当前的统计情况，见Zikopoulos, M. (Ed.), Open Doors, 1988-89; Report on International Stu-dent Exckange(New York, Institute of International Education, 1989)3也见: Jarousse, J.P., Smith, A. & Woesler, C., Les etudiants etrangersq comparison internationale des flux et des politiques, 1960-1980(Paris; European lnstitute of Education, 1982);也见: Barber, E. G, (Ed, ), Foreign Student Flows; Their Signif icance for American Higher Education(New York :lnstitute of lnternational Education, 1985).

3) ②这些问题的详尽阐述，见Altbach, P. G, , The Knowledge.Context; Comparative Perspectives on the Distribution of K nowledge(Albany, N.Y, ; State University of New York Press, 1987).

4) ③本文所用的“外国留学生(foreignstudent>"--词是指在其祖国外学习的中学后学生(postsecondary student), 而不论其是否攻读学位。“外国留学生”与英国常用的“海外学生(overseasstudent)"是同义词。

5) ④本文参照的大多数研究结果，列于有关外国留学生的三个出版物目录中: Altbach, P.G., Kelly, D. & Lulat, Y, G.M., Research on Foreign Students and International Study: An Overview and Bibliography Re search on Foreign Students and International Study; An Overview and Bibliography(New York; Praeger, 1985), Altbach, P.G. & Jing Wang, Foreign Students and International Study: Bibliography and Analysis, 1984-1988(Washington, D.C University Press of America, 1989) and Lulat, Y.G.M., Altbach, P.G. & Kelly, D, H., Governmental and "Institutional Policies on Foreign Students; Analysis, Evaluation and Bibliograply(Buffalo, N.Y.: Comparative Education Center, SUNY -Buffal0, 1986).

6) ⑤对外国留学生方面的社会科学研究文献所作的一个最佳的概览，见Barber, E.G., Altbach, P.G. & Myers, R.G.(Eds.), Bridges to Knowledgex Foreign Students in Comparative Perspective(ChicagOx Unirersity of Chicago Press, 1984).

7) ①全国外国留学生事务协会出版的一份每月通讯, 不仅刊登外国留学生领域方面的新闻, 而且不时地总结研究结果。在美国国际开发署的资助下，全国外国留学生事务协会几年来发起了许多研究。例如, 见Jenkins, H.M. & Associates, Educating Students from Other Nations(San Fr ancisco; Jossey-Bass, 1983).

8) ②80年代期间，在几个美国基金会的资助下, 国际教育学会发起了几项对外国留学生各个不同方面的有价值的研究.国际教育学会促进开辟了对外国留学的经济分析。见Dresch, S. P., The Economics of Foreign Students (New York; Institute of International Education, 1987).

9) ③见Williams, P. (Ed.), The Overseas Student Question: Studies for a Policy(London; Heinemann for the Overseas Student Trust, 1981)，这是英国关于外国留学生的重要研究的一例。

10) ④见Briggs, A. & Burn, B, Study Abroad: A European and an American Perspective(Paris, Euro-pean Institute of Education, 1985).该书是“国外学习的组织与影响”丛书的第一本。

11) ⑤见Klineberg, O. & Hull, W.F., IV., At a Foreign University: An International Study of Ada ptation and Coping(New York; Praeger, 1979)与Hull, W.F., 1V., Foreign Students in the United States of Amer-ica; Coping Be havior Within the Educati onal Envir onment(New York: Praeger, 1978).

12) ⑥Smith, A., Higher Educatlon Cooperation 1975-1985: Creating a Basis for Growth in an Adverse Economic Climate, " European Journal of Education, 20(No.2-3, 1985); 267-292。也见Opper, S., “Students; Nailed to the Bench or Studying Abroad", European Journal of Education, 22(No.1, 1987): 27-38.

13) ⑦Statistical Yearbook, 1989(Paris; Unesco, 1989)，pp.3→408 to 3-414.

14) ①Open Doors, p.9(摘自联合国教科文组织的统计数字)。

15) ②见本刊第20页注④。

16) ①见Agarwal, V.B. & Winkler, D. R., Foreign Demand for UnIted States Higher Education: A Study of Developing Countries of the Eastern Hemisphere"，Economic Developnient and Cultural! Change 33(April, 1985); 623-644与Agarwal, V.B. & Winkler, D.R., Migration of Foreign Students to the United States"，Journal of Higher Education 56 (September/October, 1985); 509-522.

17) ②东欧政治与经济上的剧变很可能会引起(至少在中短期上)在这一地区学习的第三世界学生的人数急剧下降。应该记住的是，捷克斯洛伐克与苏联这样的国家传统上就是重要的东道国。

18) ③实际上没有研究文献分析第三世界地区内部的学生流动和探讨在工业化国家学习之变化的緣由。

19) ④Altbach, P.G. & Lulat, Y.G.M., "International Students in Comparative Perspective, Toward a来稿上的原文为"economic book", 疑为"economic look"之误。现以后者译出。--译者Political Economy of International Study", in Research on Foreign Students and International Study, op.clto, p.11.

20) ⑤Dresch, s. P., The Economics of Foreign Students (New York: Institute of International Educa"tion, 1987).

21) ⑥Solmon, L.C. & Young, B. J., The Foreign Student Factor; Impact on American Higher Education (New York, Institute of International Education, 1987).

22) ①关于这一课题的少有的研究有: Zikopoulos, M. & Barber, E. G, ，Choosing Schools from Afar; The Selection of Colleges and Universities in the United States by Foreign Students (New York: Institute of International Education, 1986).

23) ②Cummings, w. K., Going Overseas for Higher Education; The Asian Experience*，Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984); 241-257.还可见"Exodus West", Asiaweek 11(March 1, 1985). 21-30.

24) ①Maliyamkono, T. L. (Ed.), Policy Developmenls in Overseas Training (Dar es Salaam: Eastern African University Research Project, 1980).

25) ②对中国政策变化情况的一项吸引人的探讨，见Hayhoe, R., “A Comparative An alysis of Chinese-Western Academic Exchange"，Comparative Education 20(No.1, 1984); 39-56.

26) ③Rajendran, M, "Malaysia's Policy on Foreign Students", Daigaku Ronshu No.15(1986); 103-110.

27) ①见Hayhoe, R, China' s Universities and the Open Door (Armonk, N.Y.:M.S.Sharpe, 1989), 该书富有见地地概览了历史上与当代的问题。

28) ②Shive, G, , "Chinese Universities After the Crackdown", CIES NewsIetter (September-October, 1989); 6~7.

29) ③Chandler, A., Obligation or Opportunity. Foreign Student Policy in Six Major Receiving Countries(New york, Institute of International Education, 1989).

30) ④见Williams, P.(Ed.).The Overseas Student Questi on sStudiesfor a Policy(London; Heinemann, 1981)与Williams, P.(Ed.), A Policy for Overseas Students (London :Overseas Students Trust, 1982).Bristow, R. & Thronton.J., Overseas Students and Government Policy, 1962-1979 (London; Overseas Students Trust, 1979), 他们对英国的情况作了历史的概述。

31) ⑤Government of Australia, Committee of Review of Private Overseas Student Policy, Mutual Advan-iage(Canberra; Australian Covernment Publishing Service, 1984) and Fraser, S.E., "Overseas Students in Australia; G overnment Policies and Institutional Support，Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984);279-299.

32) ⑥Canadian Bureau for International Education, The Right Mix :Report of the Commission on Foreign Student Policy (Ottawa; Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1981).

33) ⑦关于系统阐述政策的困难的透析，请参见Goodwin, c. D. & Nacht, M, Absence of Decisions Foreign Students in American Colleges and Universities: A Report on Policy Formation and the Lack There of(New York; Institute of International Education, 1983).也诸见Barber, E.G. (Ed.), A Survey of Policy Changes; Foreign Students in Public Institution of Higher Education(New York :Institute of International Education, 1983).

34) ①Chandler, A., Foreign Students and Government Policy: Britain, France and Germany(Washington, D.C.. American Council on Education, 1985).

35) ②对近来欧洲关于外国留学的思考情况的概览，见“Practice, Politics and Function of Foreign Study in Higher Education", Eluropean J ournal of Education, 22(N0.1, 1987); 5-114.

36) ③关于政府-机构问题的概述, 见College Entrance Examination Board, University, Government and the For.aign Graduate Student(Princeton, New Jersey: CEEB, 1979).

37) ④Weiler, H., "Political Dilemmas of Foreign Study", Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984);168-179.还见Coombs, P., The Fourth Dimension of Foreign Policy: Education and Cultural Affairs (New York; Harper and Row, 1964).

38) ⑤关于历史的透析，见Raymond, E.A., Foreign Students: The Soviet Education W eapon(Stanford, California; Hoover Institution Press, 1973).从不同的角度看问题的, 见Stanis, V.F., University of Friendship(Moscow; Progress Publishers, 1980).

39) ⑥Open Doors, 1988-1989, P.35.

40) ⑦有关从派送国角度看外国留学的经济情况的研究文选，见Willams, G., Kenyon, M. & Williams, L.(Eds, ), Readings in Overseas Student Policy (London; Overseas Students Trust, 1987); Chishti, S, "Economic Costs and Benefits of Educating Foreign Students in the United States", Research in Higher Education 21(No., 4, 1984); 397--4143 Mace, J., "Overseas Student Fee Policy; Some Economic Considerations", High-er Education Review 19(Summer, 1987); 37-545 Williams, P, Britain's Full-Cost Policy for Overseas Stu-dents", Comparative Education Review 28(May, 1984) 258-278.

41) ①澳大利亚和加拿大(程度较小)仿效英国的做法，对外国留学生收取不同的学费, 但这对学生注册人数的影响没有英国那样大。见Heffich, W., Foreign Student Costss A Report on the Costs of Educating Foreign Students in Canadian Universities (Ottawa; Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1977).

42) ②这种情况可能由于东欧近来的政治变化发生了急剧的变化。例如，匈牙利就扩充了以外国留学生为对象、用英语进行教学的学术计划，而且在对修学这些计划的学生收取学费。

43) ③当马萨诸塞州试图向外国留学生收取较高的学费时，它受到广泛的批评，合法的行为受到威胁, 有整别的学费也就从来没有付诸实践过。

44) ④反映该时期研究文献的一项经典性研究是，Adams, W.(Ed, ), The Brain Drain (New York: Macmillan, 1968)。还见Bhagwati, J.N. & Partington, M.(Eds.), Taxing tne Brain Drain (Amsterdam; North Holand, 1976)。从一种不同的角度所作的研究，见Bayer, A.R, , The American Brain Gain; The Inflow for Education and Work (Washington, D.C.x American Council on Education, 1968).

45) ①Hekmati, M., “Non-Returning Foreign Students; Why Do They Not Return Home?" ^{Dritte Welt} 2(1973): 25-43.

46) ②Howland, H. E., Brain Drain--, As It Affects the Philippines (W ashington, D.C.. Foreign Service Institute, U.S. Department of State, 1967).

47) ③例如，美国愈来愈改变了根据国籍限定移民数额的移民规定与甚至依据家庭关系移民的原则, 转向基于美国经济的需要和移民带给美国经济的特定技能的移民准则。

48) ④这些问题的探讨，见Altbach, P.G.et al., Scientific Development and Higher Education: The Case of Newly Industrialicing Nations(New York: Praeger, 1989).

49) ⑤Klineberg, O, & Hull, F., IV, At A Forign University, PP.80-82.

50) ①对这些问题的多方面的有趣探讨，可见Althen, G. (Ed.), Students fronz the Arab World and Iran(W ashington, D.C. National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1978).

51) ②少有的儿项实证研究之一依据回国者的反应，探索了他们对海外经历的态度，详细情况可见Goodwin, C, D. & Nacht, M., Fondness and Frustration: The Impact of American Higher Edrcation With S pecial Reference to the Case of Braril(New York, Institute of International Education，1984).

52) ③见Lysgaard, S., "Adjustment to a Foreign Society : Norwegian Fulbright Grantees Visiting the United States", International Social Science Bulletin 7 (1955); 45-51 and Gullahorn, J.T. & Gullaborn, J.E., "An Extension of the U-curve Hypothesis", Journal of Social Issues 19(1963); 33-47.

53) ④Klincberg, O, & Hull, F., At a Foreign University, op.cit.

54) ⑤Goodwin, C. & Nacht, M, Fondness and Frustration.

55) ①关于外国女学生的研究，见Goldsmith, J. & Shawcross, V. It Ain't Ha1f Serist, M1i;7: Iv'omen as Oversea; Student; in the U. K. (London; World University Service and the UK Council for Overseas Students Affiairs, 1985) and Rowe, L. & Sjoberg，S.，Intr nationa! IW'onen Student; : Perspectives for the 80s (W ashington, D.C.: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1981).

56) ②Goldsmitl, J. & Shawcross, V., op.cit.

57) ③Namavar, M.F., “Sex-Role Orientation of International Fenale Graduate Students and Its Relation ship With Depression and Anxiety"，Unpublished Ph D Dissertation, Indiana University, 1984.

58) ④对这一问题的恐佳探讨之一, 见Zwingmana, C.A., Glunn, A. A. & Gunn, D.G., Uprooting and Health; Psycho-Social Probleins of Student; Froni.Abrcad (Geneva, Switzerland: Division of Mental Health, World Health Organization，1983).

59) ⑤如见Leong，F.T.J., Coitnselinq Internationa! Students: Relevant Resonrces in High Interest.Areas(Ann Arbor, Michigan: ERIC Clearing House on Counseling and Personnel Services, University of Michigan984) Petersen，P.(Ed.), Handiook of Cross-Cultural Couinseling and Tieraipy(Westport, Conn.: G reen-wood，1985) and Pyle; R.K. (Ed.)，Cuiding the Development of Forpign Students (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986).

60) ⑥Mickle，K. & Chan, R.，Tie Cross Cultural Adaptation of Hong K ong Chinese Students at Canas dian Univervities (Ottawl: Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1986).

61) ⑦关于外国留学生服务，尤其是有关美国的外国留学生服务方面的研究文献很广泛。如见Lee, M., Abd -Ella, M. & Burkg, L.，Needs of Foreign Strdents from Developing Nations at U.S. Colleges and iUiniversitie(Washington, D.C.: National Associaticn for Foreign Student Affairs, 1981).

62) ⑧对“外国留学生基础设施”较长篇幅的探讨，见Altbach, P.G.，"The New Internationalism: Foreign.Stu-dents and Scholars", Studies in Higher Education 14(No.2, 1980): 125-136.

63) ⑨关于当前美国和日市教育计划的详细分析，见Chambers, G.S, & Cummings, W.K., Profiting From Ed-ueaation; Japan-United States International Ventures in the 1980s (New York: Institute of Internationa Education, 1990).

64) ①例如，见Hood, M, A.G. & Shieffer, K.(Eds.), Professional Integration:A Guide f or Students from the Developing W orld(W ashington, D.C. iNational Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1983).还见Paige' R, (Ed.), Theoretical Foundations in Cross -cultural Orientation Training(Washington, D.C.: Uaiversity Press of America, 1985).

65) ②Goodwin, C, D, & Nacht, M., Decline and Renewal CausBs and Cures of Decay Among P oreign Trained Intellectup!s and Professionals in the Third World(New York : Institute of International Education’1986) and Canadian Bureau for International Education, Returning Home; A Program f or Persons Assisting International Students with the Reentry Process(Ottawa; CBIE, 1984).对这方面研究文献的概览，见Orr, J.D, ,.Jr., "The Foreign Schol ar Returned Home; A Review qf Selected Reseata", Unpublished Ed.D. Thesis, Columbia University, 1971.

66) ③Baron, M., The Relevance of U. S.Gradnate Progroms to Foreign Students from Developing Coun-tries (Washington, D.C.; . National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1979).还见Dunnett, S, C., Managemnent Skills Training for Foreign Engineering Students, An Assessment of Need and Availability(Washington, D.C. National Association for F oreign Student Affairs, 1982) and Moore, R.J., Bridges :Ca~nadian Universitv Curricula ana Students from the Developing W orld (Ottawa: Canadian Bureau for International Education, 1977).

67) ④研究文献中很少探讨的是对种族歧视的体验，而来自第三世界的许多外国留学生在旅居期间都有这种体验。对外国留学生态度的研究经常提到这个问题，但在研究文献中没有得到足够的注意。